AMD Turion

Enhanced Memory and Processing

With true multi-core technology, notebook PCs based on AMD Turion� X2 Ultra Dual-Core Mobile Processors and AMD Turion� X2 Dual-Core Mobile Processors can deliver significantly greater bandwidth with support for power-optimized HyperTransport� 3.0 Technology and PCI Express� 2.0, increasing data throughput and improving system performance while helping to extend battery life.

Next-Generation Power Management

Get long battery life with performance on demand. Enhanced AMD PowerNow!� Technology dynamically switches performance states (processor core voltage and operating frequency) based on processor performance requirements enabling today's more mobile and demanding PC user to extend battery life. With AMD Dynamic Power Management, each processor core, and the integrated memory controller and HyperTransport� Technology controller are powered by a dedicated voltage plane to give you the performance you need while multitasking on the go. Independent Dynamic Core Technology extends battery life by dynamically optimizing the operating frequency for each core in the processor based on end-user application needs. And AMD CoolCore� Technology extends notebook usage while on battery by turning off processor features that are not being used.

Range Of Products Provide Smarter Choices For The Money

Choose the right performance for your mobile lifestyle. Mobile solution options include AMD Turion� X2 Ultra Dual-Core Mobile Processors, which are designed to enable extreme performance and mobility, and AMD Turion� X2 Dual-Core Mobile Processors, which deliver exceptional performance and long battery life. All to give more choices to today's more mobile PC users.

The Security And Reliability You Want With The Value You Expect For The Long-Term

Run the 32-bit applications of today and the 64-bit applications of tomorrow. Get the advantage of today's powerful applications in a power-efficient notebook PC with the forward-thinking technology to support the advanced applications of the future. Take comfort in security innovations such as Enhanced Virus Protection.

AMD Sempron Processor

AMD Sempron� Processor Overview

The AMD Sempron� processor performs at the top of its class when running the home and business applications most. The AMD Sempron� processor�s full-featured capabilities can include AMD64 Technology, HyperTransport� technology, up to 256KB total high-performance cache, One 16-bit/16-bit link @ up to 1600MHz full duplex system bus technology, and an integrated DDR2 memory controller.

The AMD Sempron� processor provides the productivity enhancing performance you need for your everyday applications. It runs over 60,000 of the world�s most popular applications, so you can enjoy solid performance. With 35 years of design and manufacturing experience and shipments of more than 240 million PC processors, you can count on AMD to provide reliable solutions for your home or business.

Affordable - Performance

The AMD Sempron processor performs at the top of its class on the home and business applications that you need and use most.

The AMD Sempron processor is designed for day-to-day computing and beyond.

Full-Featured to Improve your Computing Experience

The AMD Sempron processor lets you enjoy a dynamic Internet experience with smooth streaming video and audio.

The AMD Sempron processor saves you time and effort; enabling your system to boot and load your applications quickly.

Applications that allow you to communicate with family, friends and colleagues will run smoothly with the AMD Sempron processor.

The AMD Sempron� processor�s advanced architectural features help ensure affordable performance and full-featured capability. These features include:

AMD64 Technology

HyperTransport technology

Up to 256KB total high-performance, full-speed cache

One 16-bit/16-bit link @ up to 1600MHz full duplex system bus technology,

Integrated DDR2 memory controller on certain models

Built-in security with Enhanced Virus Protection* that works with Microsoft� Windows� XP SP2 to help protect against viruses, worms, and other malicious attacks. When combined with protective software, Enhanced Virus Protection is part of an overall security solution that helps keep your information safer.

Enjoy full compatibility with the tools you use daily.
The AMD Sempron processor is designed to run more than 60,000 of the most popular software applications, so you can enjoy reliable performance for a wide variety of computing needs. And since the AMD Sempron processor is compatible with leading PC peripherals, it helps keep everything running smoothly.

Get more value from your PC.
The AMD Sempron processor is ideal for families, students and other budget-conscious or entry-level computer buyers. It includes the right set of features you need for day-to-day computing, and gives you more power for your money than other similar processors. This means you get a PC configured with better components such as CD drives, graphics capabilities, and more.

Reliability from an Industry Leader

AMD is an industry leader that is dedicated to enabling you to get the job done at work or at play.

AMD is constantly striving to find the right solutions for you and your home or business needs.

AMD�s superior quality and track record have long been recognized by a number of the industry�s top publications, organizations and high-tech experts. AMD products, technology, manufacturing, facilities, executives and corporate and community programs have earned a multitude of awards and recognition over the years.

For the latest performance benchmarks and detailed technical documentation of the AMD Sempron processor, please visit Benchmarks and Technical Documentation. For more product comparison information, please visit the AMD Sempron Product Comparison.

AMD Athlon� 64 Processor

AMD Athlon� 64 Processor Overview

The AMD Athlon 64 processor is the first Windows�-compatible 64-bit PC processor. The AMD Athlon 64 processor runs on AMD64 technology, a revolutionary technology that allows the processor to run 32-bit applications at full speed while enabling a new generation of powerful 64-bit software applications. Advanced 64-bit operating systems designed for the AMD64 platform from Microsoft, Red Hat, SuSE, and TurboLinux have already been announced.

With the introduction of the AMD Athlon 64 processor, AMD provides customers a solution that can address their current and future computing needs. As the first desktop PC processor to run on the AMD64 platform, the AMD Athlon 64 processor helps ensure superior performance on today�s software with readiness for the coming wave of 64-bit computing. With AMD64 technology, customers can embrace the new capabilities of 64-bit computing on their own terms and achieve compatibility with existing software and operating systems.

Enhanced Virus Protection with Windows� XP Service Pack 2 With a unique combination of hardware and software technologies that offer you an added layer of protection, certain types of viruses don't stand a chance. The AMD Athlon 64 processor features Enhanced Virus Protection, when support by the OS*, and can help protect against viruses, worms, and other malicious attacks. When combined with protective software, Enhanced Virus Protection is part of an overall security solution that helps keep your information safer.

Industry-leading performance for today�s software

It 's not just about email, Web browsing and word processing anymore. The AMD Athlon 64 processor gives you full-throttle performance to go wherever your digital world takes you. Whether you're watching videos, ripping and playing music, or playing games, AMD64 performance helps you to fully enjoy any multimedia experience with a �you are there� reality. The revolutionary architecture of the AMD Athlon 64 processor enables industry-leading performance to help maximize productivity and deliver a true-to-life digital entertainment experience. HyperTransport� technology can increase overall system performance by removing I/O bottlenecks, increasing system bandwidth, and reducing system latency. A fully integrated DDR memory controller helps speed access to memory by offering the processor a direct connection to the main memory. As a result, end users can enjoy quicker application loading and extraordinary application performance.

With 3DNow!� Professional technology and support for SSE3, the AMD Athlon 64 processor has more ways to accelerate multimedia applications, enabling stellar performance when working with audio, video, and photography software. For a superior experience with high-speed Internet, the AMD Athlon 64 processor combines high-speed memory access and I/O connectivity to help ensure that end users can fully take advantage of a broadband connection to streaming video and audio, and a riveting online gaming experience.

Ready for the 64-bit future

The AMD Athlon 64 processor is designed for people who want to stay at the forefront of technology and for those who depend on their PCs to keep them connected, informed, and entertained. Systems based on AMD Athlon 64 processors are able to deliver leading-edge performance for demanding productivity and entertainment software today and in the future.

With AMD64 technology, the AMD Athlon 64 processor is fully compatible with existing software, while enabling a seamless transition to 64-bit applications. Both 32- and 64-bit applications can run virtually simultaneously and transparently on the same platform. AMD64 technology enables new, cinematic computing experiences and capabilities, in addition to increased performance. AMD64 technology allows end users to take advantage of new innovations such as real-time encryption, more life-like games, accurate speech interfaces, cinema-quality graphic effects, and easy-to-use video and audio editing.

Protect investments with a technically superior PC processor

The AMD Athlon 64 processor is the world�s most technically advanced PC processor and the first Windows-compatible 64-bit PC processor. Advanced technologies in the AMD Athlon 64 processor include:

-AMD64 technology which doubles the number of processor registers and dramatically increases the system memory addressability

-Enhanced multimedia instructions support including 3DNow! Professional technology and SSE2/3

-With up to a 2000 MHz system bus using HyperTransport technology with up to 14.4 GB/sec total processor-to-system bandwidth

-An integrated memory controller with peak memory bandwidth of up to 6.4 GB/sec, supporting PC3200, PC2700, PC2100, or PC1600 DDR SDRAM

-Native execution of 32-bit software, allowing today�s PC software to provide leading-edge performance while enabling a seamless migration to 64-bit software

The combination of these innovations and features provides customers with performance they need along with tremendous flexibility. Customers can experience outstanding performance running today�s applications and prepare for the next generation of software without having to upgrade or change hardware. For business customers, this extends system life cycles, simplifies technology transition and reduces total cost of ownership.

Purchase with confidence

The AMD Athlon 64 processor is the only industry standard x86 processor with the ability to move beyond the limits of 32-bit computing. The AMD Athlon 64 processor is compatible with Microsoft Windows XP and tens of thousands of PC applications that people around the world use every day. The award-winning AMD Athlon XP processor won over 100 industry accolades and was the first 1GHz PC processor. Now, the AMD Athlon 64 processor reaches a new milestone by building a path to 64-bit computing for millions of PC users.

Founded in 1969, AMD has shipped more than 300 million PC processors worldwide. Customers can depend on the AMD Athlon 64 processor and AMD for compatibility and reliability. AMD processors undergo extensive testing to help ensure compatibility with Microsoft Windows XP, Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows NT�, Windows 2000, as well as Linux and other PC operating systems. AMD works collaboratively with Microsoft and other partners to achieve compatibility of AMD processors and to expand the capability of software and hardware products leveraging AMD64 technology. AMD conducts rigorous research, development, and validation to help ensure the continued integrity and performance of its products.

AMD Processor

Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) (NYSE: AMD) is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and consumer markets. Its main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and processor technologies for handheld devices, digital television, automobiles, game consoles, and other embedded systems applications.

AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture after Intel Corporation, and the third-largest supplier of graphics processing units, behind Intel and Nvidia. It also owns 21 percent of Spansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash memory. In 2007, AMD ranked eleventh among semiconductor manufacturers in terms of revenue.

Advanced Micro Devices was founded on May 1, 1969, by a group of former executives from Fairchild Semiconductor, including Jerry Sanders III, Ed Turney, John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three members from Gifford's team, Frank Botte, Jim Giles, and Larry Stenger. The company began as a producer of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx) which were used in various minicomputer designs.

During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the perceived shift towards RISC with their own AMD 29K processor, and they attempted to diversify into graphics and audio devices as well as EPROM memory. It had some success in the mid-80s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multistandard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex. While the AMD 29K survived as an embedded processor and AMD spinoff Spansion continues to make industry leading flash memory, AMD was not as successful with its other endeavors. AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory. This put them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets.

AMD announced a merger with ATI Technologies on July 24, 2006. AMD paid $4.3 billion in cash and 58 million shares of its stock for a total of US$5.4 billion. The merger completed on October 25, 2006 and ATI is now part of AMD.

Problem Solving and Programming Logic

Computer Programs: The Power of Logic

A single program addresses a particular problem. When you write a program, you are solving a problem.

To solve a problem you must use your power of logic and develop an algorithm, or procedure, for solving the problem.

The algorithm is the finite set of step-by-step instructions that convert the input into the desired output, that is, solve the problem.

Structured Program Design: Divide and Conquer

Given a task, programmers were left on their own to create a solution any way they could.

Three major problems arose from this free-form method:
1.Long development time,
2.High maintenance cost, and
3.Low-quality software.

Structured programming stresses the systematic design and management of the program development process.

illustrates a common programming problem:

The printing of weekly payroll checks for hourly and commission employees. In the figure a structure chart is used to break the programming problem into a hierarchy of tasks. The most effective programs are designed to be written in modules, or independent task.

It is much easier to address a complex programming problem in small, more manageable modules than as one big task by using the principles of structured programming.

In structured programming, the logic of the program is addressed hierarchically in logical modules.

BY dividing the program into modules, the structured approach to programming reduces the complexity of the programming task.

Some programs are so complex that if taken as a single task.

Goals of structured programming :

Decrease program development time by increasing programmer productivity and reducing the
time needed to test and debug a program.

Decrease program maintenance costs by reducing errors and making program code easier to understand.

Improve the quality of software by providing programs with fewer errors.

Structured programming accomplishes these goals by incorporating these concepts:

1. Top-down design and use of modules.
   
2. Use of limited control structures (sequence, selection, and repetition).
   
3. Management control.

Top-down design starts with the major functions involved in a problem and divides them into subfunctions until the problem has been divided as much as possible.

Each unit is small enough to be programmed by an individual programmer in the required time frame.

This forces an examination of all aspects of a problem on one level before considering the next level.

A programmer is left with small groups, or modules, of processing instructions, which are easy to understand and code.

A program consists of a main logic module that controls the execution of the other modules in the program.

Working from the top down avoids solutions that deal with only part of a problem.

A program that uses a main logic module to control smaller modules is easier to read, test, and maintain.

In structured programming, modules ensure these qualities by:

-having only one entrance and one exit

-performing only one program function

-returning control to the module from which it was received

Programming In Perspective

What Is Computer Programming ?

Computer programming involves writing instructions and giving them to the computer so it can complete a task.

A computer program, or software, is a set of instructions written in a computer language, intended to be executed by a computer to perform a useful task.

The application packages such as word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems are computer programs.

A programmer is an individual who translates the tasks that you want a computer to accomplish into a form the computer understands.

What Are The Qualities of a Well-Designed Program?

� Correct and accurate
� Easy to understand
� Easy to maintain and update
� Efficient
� Reliable
� Flexible

Brief of Mac OS

Mac OS is Apple Computer's operating system for Apple Macintosh computers. Mac OS was the first commercially successful operating system which used a graphical user interface. The Macintosh team included Bill Atkinson and Jef Raskin. There are a variety of views on how the Macintosh was developed, and where the underlying ideas originated. While the connection between the Macintosh and the Alto project at Xerox PARC has been established in the historical record, the earlier contributions of Ivan Sutherland's Sketchpad and Doug Engelbart's On-Line System are no less significant. See History of the GUI, and Apple v. Microsoft.

The Mac OS can be divided into two families of operating systems:

An older and now unsupported "classic" Mac OS (the system that shipped with the first Mac in 1984 and its descendants, culminating with Mac OS 9).

The newer Mac OS X (pronunced oh-es-ten). Mac OS X incorporates elements of BSD Unix, OPENSTEP, and Mac OS 9. Its low-level UNIX-based foundation, Darwin, is open source.

Classic Mac OS

The "classic" Mac OS is characterized by its total lack of a command line; it is a 100% graphical operating system. Heralded for its ease of use, it is also criticized for its almost total lack of memory management, cooperative multitasking, and susceptibility to extension conflicts. "Extensions" are program modules that extend the operating system, providing additional functionality (such as a networking) or support for a particular device. Some extensions are prone not to work properly together, or only when loaded in a particular order. Troubleshooting Mac OS extensions can be a time-consuming process. The MacOS also introduced a new type of filesystem, which contained two different "forks" for a file. It was innovative at the time for separating out parameters into the resource fork, and raw data in the "data fork". However, it became quite a challenge to interoperate with other operating systems which did not recognize such a system.

The term "Mac OS" was not officially used until 1996 with the release of Mac OS 7.6 - prior to that the Macintosh operating system software was simply known as "The System", or by its version number, e.g. System 6 or System 7. Another common term was "the Toolbox". Apple deliberately played down the existence of the operating system in the early years of the Mac to help make the machine appear more user-friendly and to distance it from other systems such as MS-DOS, which were portrayed as arcane and technically challenging. With Mac, you turned it on, it just worked.

By the late 1990s, it was clear the useful life of this 1980s-era technology was coming to an end, with other more stable multitasking operating systems being developed.

Mac OS X

Mac OS X remedied this situation, bringing Unix-style memory management and preemptive multitasking. Improved memory management allowed more programs to run at once and virtually eliminated the possibility of one program crashing another. It is also the first Mac OS to include a command line, although it is never seen unless a separate "terminal" program is launched. However, since these new features put higher demands on system resources, Mac OS X is only officially supported on G3 and newer processors. (It runs poorly on many early G3 machines). Mac OS X has a compatibility layer for running older Mac applications, but compatibility is not 100%.

Mac OS Technologies

QuickDraw: the imaging model which first provided mass-market WYSIWYG.

Finder: the interface for browsing the filesystem and launching applications.

MultiFinder: the first version to support simultaneously running multiple apps.

Chooser: tool for accessing network resources (e.g., enabling AppleTalk).

ColorSync: technology for ensuring appropriate color matching.

Mac OS memory management: how the Mac managed RAM and virtual memory before the switch to UNIX.

PowerPC emulation of Motorola 68000: how the Mac handled the architectural transition from

CISC to RISC (see Mac 68K emulator).

Desk Accessories - small "helper" apps that could be run concurrently with any other app, prior to the advent of MultiFinder or System 7.

New Virus in April

An extraordinary behind-the-scenes struggle is taking place between computer security groups around the world and the brazen author of a malicious software program called Conficker.

The program grabbed global attention when it began spreading late last year and quickly infected millions of computers with software code that is intended to lash together the infected machines it controls into a powerful computer known as a botnet.

Since then, the program�s author has repeatedly updated its software in a cat-and-mouse game being fought with an informal international alliance of computer security firms and a network governance group known as the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Members refer to the alliance as the Conficker Cabal.

The existence of the botnet has brought together some of the world�s best computer security experts to prevent potential damage. The spread of the malicious software is on a scale that matches the worst of past viruses and worms, like the I Love You virus. Last month, Microsoft announced a $250,000 reward for information leading to the capture of the Conficker author.

Botnets are used to send the vast majority of e-mail spam messages. Spam in turn is the basis for shady commercial promotions including schemes that frequently involve directing unwary users to Web sites that can plant malicious software, or malware, on computers.

Botnets can also be used to distribute other kinds of malware and generate attacks that can take commercial or government Web sites off-line.

One of the largest botnets tracked last year consisted of 1.5 million infected computers that were being used to automate the breaking of �captchas,� the squiggly letter tests that are used to force applicants for Web services to prove they are human.

The inability of the world�s best computer security technologists to gain the upper hand against anonymous but determined cybercriminals is viewed by a growing number of those involved in the fight as evidence of a fundamental security weakness in the global network.

�I walked up to a three-star general on Wednesday and asked him if he could help me deal with a million-node botnet,� said Rick Wesson, a computer security researcher involved in combating Conficker. �I didn�t get an answer.�

An examination of the program reveals that the zombie computers are programmed to try to contact a control system for instructions on April 1. There has been a range of speculation about the nature of the threat posed by the botnet, from a wake-up call to a devastating attack.

Researchers who have been painstakingly disassembling the Conficker code have not been able to determine where the author, or authors, is located, or whether the program is being maintained by one person or a group of hackers. The growing suspicion is that Conficker will ultimately be a computing-for-hire scheme. Researchers expect it will imitate the hottest fad in the computer industry, called cloud computing, in which companies like Amazon, Microsoft and Sun Microsystems sell computing as a service over the Internet.

Earlier botnets were devised so they could be split up and rented via black market schemes that are common in the Internet underground, according to security researchers.

The Conficker program is built so that after it takes up residence on infected computers, it can be programmed remotely by software to serve as a vast system for distributing spam or other malware.

Several people who have analyzed various versions of the program said Conficker�s authors were obviously monitoring the efforts to restrict the malicious program and had repeatedly demonstrated that their skills were at the leading edge of computer technology.

For example, the Conficker worm already had been through several versions when the alliance of computer security experts seized control of 250 Internet domain names the system was planning to use to forward instructions to millions of infected computers.

Shortly thereafter, in the first week of March, the fourth known version of the program, Conficker C, expanded the number of the sites it could use to 50,000. That step made it virtually impossible to stop the Conficker authors from communicating with their botnet.

�It�s worth noting that these are folks who are taking this seriously and not making many mistakes,� said Jose Nazario, a member of the international security group and a researcher at Arbor Networks, a company in Lexington, Mass., that provides tools for monitoring the performance of networks. �They�re going for broke.�

Several members of the Conficker Cabal said that law enforcement officials had been slow to respond to the group�s efforts, but that a number of law enforcement agencies were now in �listen� mode.

�We�re aware of it,� said Paul Bresson, an F.B.I. spokesman, �and we�re working with security companies to address the problem.�

A report scheduled to be released Thursday by SRI International, a nonprofit research institute in Menlo Park, Calif., says that Conficker C constitutes a major rewrite of the software. Not only does it make it far more difficult to block communication with the program, but it gives the program added powers to disable many commercial antivirus programs as well as Microsoft�s security update features.

�Perhaps the most obvious frightening aspect of Conficker C is its clear potential to do harm,� said Phillip Porras, a research director at SRI International and one of the authors of the report. �Perhaps in the best case, Conficker may be used as a sustained and profitable platform for massive Internet fraud and theft.�

�In the worst case,� Mr. Porras said, �Conficker could be turned into a powerful offensive weapon for performing concerted information warfare attacks that could disrupt not just countries, but the Internet itself.�

The researchers, noting that the Conficker authors were using the most advanced computer security techniques, said the original version of the program contained a recent security feature developed by an M.I.T. computer scientist, Ron Rivest, that had been made public only weeks before. And when a revision was issued by Dr. Rivest�s group to correct a flaw, the Conficker authors revised their program to add the correction.

Although there have been clues that the Conficker authors may be located in Eastern Europe, evidence has not been conclusive. Security researchers, however, said this week that they were impressed by the authors� productivity.

Source New York Times